Dinamika Penegakan Hukum Humaniter Internasional: Analisis Kehadiran PMSC dalam Konflik Non-Internasional di Libanon, Somalia, dan Ukraina
Abstract
The article aims to discuss the private military and security companies/PMSC, International Humanitarian Law/IHL and the fourth generation warfare/4GW in contemporary non-international armed conflict. Discussion on PMSC varies in terms of its contribution to the development of weapon system and intelligence gathering in combating terrorism, and of its violation towards humanity that has caused civilian casualties. Meanwhile, IHL is present to regulate the primary actors of international and non-international armed conflict, and to protect civilians in both conflicts. The dynamics of contemporary conflict, especially the asymmetrical non-international armed conflict, is also influenced by the rapid development of information and communication technology. This affects the popularity of the use of and debate on the definition of 4GW and its relevance to the contemporary conflict. This article also analyses the presence of PMSC on the dynamics of respect towards IHL in non-international armed conflict during the period of 2009-2014. The qualitative analysis would be especially conducted under the concept of international law and PMSC as two of the conceptual frameworks. Secondary data is collected on three main variables. The results show that PMSC creates both pontentials and challenges to the effort of upholding IHL in three non-international conflict areas, i.e. Lebanon, Somalia, and Ukraine. In relation to 4GW, PMSC also reflects some characterisation of 4GW trends in such contemporary conflict.
Tulisan ini bertujuan untuk mendiskusikan perusahaan swasta dalam bidang militer dan keamanan (private military and security companies/PMSC), hukum humaniter internasional (International Humanitarian Law/IHL), dan perang generasi keempat (fourth generation warfare/4GW) dalam konflik bersenjata non-internasional kontemporer. Diskusi mengenai PMSC beragam pada sisi kontribusinya kepada pengembangan sistem persenjataan dan pengumpulan data intelijen dalam rangka melawan terorisme, serta pada sisi pelanggaran terhadap kemanusiaan yang telah mengakibatkan korban sipil. Sementara itu, terdapat IHL yang mengatur para aktor dalam konflik baik itu internasional maupun non-internasional dalam rangka melindungi warga sipil pada keduanya. Dinamika konflik kontemporer terutamanya yang bersifat non-internasional dan asimetris juga dipengaruhi oleh perkembangan pesat teknologi informasi dan komunikasi. Hal ini mendorong perdebatan terkait relevansi 4GW dalam konflik kontemporer. Tulisan ini kemudiannya menganalisis kehadiran PMSC terhadap dinamika penegakan IHL dalam konflik non-internasional kontemporer pada tahun 2009-2014. Analisis kualitatif akan dilakukan terutamanya dengan menggunakan konsep hukum internasional dan PMSC. Data sekunder yang dikumpulkan fokus kepada tiga variabel utama tersebut di atas. Hasil menunjukkan bahwa PMSC tidak hanya memberikan potensi kontribusi tetapi juga tantangan kepada upaya menegakkan IHL pada tiga area konflik non-internasional, yaitu Libanon, Somalia dan Ukraina. Terkait dengan 4GW, kehadiran PMSC juga mencerminkan beberapa karakter tren 4GW dalam konflik kontemporer.
Keywords
Full Text:
PDFReferences
Agence France-Presse. 12 Desember, 2013. Ukrainian Protesters Dig In as Pressure Mounts on Yanukovich. (Online), (http://thejakartaglobe.beritasatu.com/international/ ukrainian-protesters-dig-in-as-pressure-mounts-on-yanukovych/ diakses pada 24 Juli 2015)
Apps, Peter. 21 Oktober, 2012. As Iraq, Afghan Wars End, Private Security Firms Adapt. (Online), (https://www.globalpolicy.org/pmscs/52016-as-iraq-afghan-wars-end-private-security-firms-adapt.html?itemid=id#50208)
Arman, Abukar. 3 Agustus, 2012. Obstacles to Progress: Somalia’s Fault Lines. (Online), (https://www.globalpolicy.org/security-council/index-of-countries-on-the-security-council-agenda/somalia/51812-obstacles-to-progress-somalias-fault-lines.html#876)
Beckman, Robert dan Dagmar Butte. Introduction to International Law. International Law Student Association. (Online), (https://www.ilsa.org/jessup/intlawintro.pdf diakses pada 9 Maret 2015)
Bertelsmann Stiftung. 2014. Somalia Country Report. (Online), (http://www.bti-project.org/reports/country-reports/esa/som/index.nc)
BBC Monitoring Middle East. 18 Maret, 2007. Al-Manar says number of Lebanon "private" security firms rising. (Online), (http://www.privateforces.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1646&Itemid=1 diakses pada 1 Mei 2015)
BBC News. 2011. Growth of Lebanon’s Private Security Sector. Middle East Business Report. (Online), (diunggah pada 14 Oktober 2011 oleh Howard Johnson pada https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LEJp6aJ105k)
Cornell University Law School. (t. thn.). Prima Facie. Cornell University Law School. (Online), (https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/prima_facie)
Halperin, Sandra dan Oliver Heath. 2012. Political Research: Methods and Practical Skill. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Harrison, Lisa. 2001. Political Research: An introduction. London: Routledge.
International Crisis Group. 26 Mei, 2010. Lebanon’s Politics: The Sunni Community and Hariri’s Future Current. Middle East Report 96.
International Crisis Group. 2 Januari, 2014. Crisis Watch Database. (Online), http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/publication-type/crisiswatch/crisiswatch-database.aspx?CountryIDs={8864A71C-2EC4-456D-A9BC-5E7190244489}#results diakses pada 24 Juli 2015.
International Crisis Group. 26 Juni, 2014. Somalia: Al-Shabaab – It Will Be a Long War. Africa Briefing No. 99. Brussel: ICG.
Khan, Khurshid dan Afifa Kiran. 2012. Understanding Fourth Generation Warfare and Its Relevance to Pakistan. IPRI Journal XII No. 2 (Summer 2012).
Knight, David. 26 Agustus, 2011. Private Security Companies Used in International Waters. (Online), (https://www.globalpolicy.org/pmscs/50640-private-security-companies-used-in-international-waters-.html?itemid=1462)
Kramer, Andrew E. (2015, 3 Juli). Mindful of Greece, Ukraine Is in a Rush to Line Up Debt Relief. New York Times, (Online), (http://www.nytimes.com/business/mindful-of-greece-ukraine-is-in-a-rush-to-line-up-debt-relief.html diakses pada 25 Juli 2015)
Lamothe, Dan. (2015, 28 Januari). Security contractor David Berry, killed in Libya, leaves a legacy of U.S. military service. Washington Post, (Online), (https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2015/01/28/security-contractor-david-berry-killed-in-libya-leaves-a-legacy-of-u-s-military-service/)
Luhn, Alec. (2015, 20 April 2015). US Paratroopers begin Training Ukraine National Guard Units. The Guardian, (Online), (http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/apr/20/us-paratroopers-begin-training-national-guard-units-in-ukraine diakses pada 24 Juli 2015)
Mazzetti, Mark, dan Eric Schmitt. 4 Oktober, 2012. Private Army Formed to Fight Somali Pirates Leaves Troubled Legacy. (Online), (https://www.globalpolicy.org/pmscs/51965-private-army-formed-to-fight-somali-pirates-leaves-troubled-legacy.html?viewarticle=&itemid=id#50208.)
Mikdashi, Maya. September 24, 2012. Beirut: Security, Surveillance, Navigation. (Online), (http://www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/7500/beirut_security-surveillance-navigation-)
Morgenstern, Alex. 26 Juni, 2015. The Conflict in Ukraine and Private Military Companies. (Online), (http://www.tlaxcala-int.org/article.asp?reference=15049 diakses pada 24 Juli 2015)
Murden, Simon. 2007. Staying the Course in ‘Fourth-Generation Warfare’: Persuasion and Perseverance in the Era of the Asymmetric Bargaining War. Contemporary Security Policy, Vol. 28, No.1 (April 2007)
Novoseltsev, Boris. 5 Maret, 2015. US PMSCs Used for Arms Supplies to Ukraine. (Online), (http://www.strategic-culture.org/news/2015/03/05/us-PMSCs-used-forarms-supplies-to-ukraine.html diakses pada 24 Juli 2015)
del Prado, Jose L. Gomez. 9 Juli, 2013. The Privatisation of War: “Private Security Companies” on Contract with UN “Humanitarian” and “Peace Keeping” Operations. Global Research, (Online), (http://www.globalresearch.ca/the-privatisation-of-war-private-security-companies-on-contract-with-un-humanitarianand-peace-keeping-operations/5342155 diakses pada 15 Juli 2013)
Powell, Ivor. 29 September, 2012. South Africa-Linked Military Firm Loses Anti-Piracy Contract. (Online), (https://www.globalpolicy.org/pmscs/51945-south-africa-linked-military-firm-loses-anti-piracy-contract.html?itemid=id#50208)
Radia, Kirit, et. al. 8 April, 2014. US Contractor Greystone Denies Its ‘Mercenaries’ in Ukraine. ABC News (Online), (http://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/greystone-firm-accused-disguising-mercenaries-ukrainians/story?id=23243761 diakses pada 26 Juli 2015)
Rogin, Josh. 28 Februari, 2014. Exclusive: Russian ‘Blackwater’ Takes Over Ukraine Airport. The Daily Beast, (Online), (http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/02/28/exclusive-russian-blackwater-takes-over-ukraine-airport.html diakses pada 26 Juli 2015)
Rogulin, Dmitry. 25 Maret, 2014. Protest Movement in Eastern Ukraine: Security Forces Integrated bu Foreign Mercenaries Hired by Private U.S. Military Outfit. (Online), (http://www.globalresearch.ca/crisis-in-eastern-ukraine-security-forces-integrated-by-foreign-mercenaries/5377018 diakses pada 24 Juli 2014)
RT.com. 24 Juli, 2015. Ukraine pays $120mn debt, avoids technical default – finance ministry. (Online), (https://www.rt.com/business/310639-ukraine-pays-debt-default/ diakses pada 25 Juli 2015)
SEDM-CC/PMSC, 19th PMSC Meeting: Approved Minutes, Skopje, 15-16 April 2008.
Singer, P.W. 2001. Corporate Warriors: The Rise and Ramifications of the Privated Military Industry. International Security, Vol. 26 No. 3.
Terlikowski, Marcin. 2008. Private Military Companies in the US Stabilization Operation in Iraq. Warsawa: The Polish Institute of International Affairs.
Vinopal, Kelly. 2013. Researching Public International Law. Panduan sumber elektronik. American Society of International Law. (Online), (www.asil.org/sites/default/files/ERG_PUBLIC_INT.pdf diakses pada 9 Maret 2015)
Walker, Shaun. 24 Juli, 2015. ‘We like partisan warfare’. Chechens fighting in Ukraine – on both sides. The Guardian, (Online), (http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/24/chechens-fighting-in-ukraine-on-both-sides, diakses pada 24 Juli 2015)
World Food Programme. 2015. Somalia: Overview. (Online), (https://www.wfp.org/countries/somalia/food-security)
Yuniasih, Tulus dan Budi Hartono. (2013). Analisis Konseptual Dampak Perusahaan Swasta Militer dan Keamanan (Private Military and Security Company/PMSC) Terhadap Perang Generasi Keempat (Fourth Generation Warfare/4GW). Transnasional Vol. 8 (2)
DOI: https://doi.org/10.18196/hi.5299
Refbacks
- There are currently no refbacks.
Copyright (c) 2017 Jurnal Hubungan Internasional
Jurnal Hubungan Internasional Indexed by:
Editorial Office of Jurnal Hubungan Internasional
Ki Bagus Hadikusumo Building, E4, 1st floor, Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta
Jl. Brawijaya, Tamantirto, Kasihan, Bantul, Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta, 55183, Indonesia
jurnalhi@umy.ac.id ariekusumapaksi@umy.ac.id
Jurnal Hubungan Internasional in collaboration with:
Jurnal Hubungan Internasional is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
View My Stats